CANADA GEESE

Range
In North America, most waterfowl are migratory, flying long distances in the spring and fall between the summer breeding grounds and wintering areas.

Ducks and geese breed throughout North America including the mid-Atlantic states’ coastal marshes and barrier islands.

Many of the historical North American waterfowl breeding, migrating, and wintering areas are changing because of agricultural and land-clearing practices, northern prairie pothole drainage, and development of the US Fish and Wildlife Service’s National Wildlife Refuge system.

Habitat
Waterfowl, as their name implies, are most often found near water. They can, however, fly long distances to and from favorite feeding grounds, which may include agricultural or upland sites. Some species, such as the mallard and certain subspecies of Canada geese, are extremely adaptable. They are equally at home in rural and urban environments, on a pond in a city park, or on a marsh in Alaska.

Food Habits
The food of individual waterfowl species ranges from fish to insects to plants in various combinations, depending on availability. Waterfowl bills have evolved to allow the exploitation of a wide variety of food sources and associated habitats. Even though many species are adapted to feeding in the water, most will readily come on land to take advantage of available food. Since space does not permit a species-by-species description of food habits, a few general comments will suffice.

During the prefledging period, young waterfowl feed primarily on aquatic insects and other invertebrates. As adults, waterfowl have an omnivorous diet. Dabbling ducks, whistling ducks, and shovelers are primarily filter feeders and will consume almost anything edible. Torrent ducks, blue ducks, and scaups feed heavily on aquatic insect larvae, snails, and other invertebrates found on and under rocks in streams and ponds. Large eiders, scoters, and steamer ducks feed heavily on mollusks and shellfish. Steller’s eider feeds more on soft-shelled invertebrates. Fish are the main food of mergansers. Swans are aquatic grazers and geese are terrestrial grazers.

General Biology, Reproduction, and Behavior
Waterfowl are normally monogamous and solitary nesters. The size of the nesting territory is determined by the aggressiveness of the particular pair of birds. Pair formation in geese and swans tends to be permanent until one of the pair dies; the remaining bird will often re-mate. Ducks seek a new mate each year.

Damage and Damage Identification
Goose problems in urban and suburban areas are primarily caused by giant Canada geese, which are probably the most adaptable of all waterfowl. If left undisturbed, these geese will readily establish nesting territories on ponds in residential yards, golf courses, condominium complexes, city parks, or on farms. Most people will readily welcome a pair of geese on a pond. They can soon turn from pet to pest, however. A pair of geese can, in 5 to 7 years, easily become 50 to 100 birds that are fouling ponds and surrounding yards and damaging landscaping, gardens, and golf courses. Defense of nests or young by geese and swans can result in injuries to people who come too close.

Migrant waterfowl damage agricultural crops in northern and central North American. In the spring, waterfowl graze and trample crops such as soybeans, sunflowers, and cereal grains. In autumn, swathed grains are vulnerable to damage by ducks, coots, geese, and cranes through feeding, trampling, and fouling. Young alfalfa is susceptible to damage by grazing waterfowl. Geese sometimes damage standing crops such as corn, soybeans, and wheat. In southern agricultural areas, over-wintering waterfowl can cause problems in rice, lettuce, and winter wheat.

Economics of Damage and Control
Waterfowl cause significant losses to agricultural and aquacultural crops, damage golf courses, cemeteries, lawns, and gardens, and contaminate reservoirs. Their activities can cause real economic hardship, aggravate nuisance situations, or create human health hazards. A reliable figure for the total national economic loss caused by waterfowl does not exist. The following examples serve to illustrate the magnitude of the problem, however.

Legal Status
In the United States, migratory birds, including most waterfowl, as well as their nests and eggs, are federally protected (50 CFR 10.12) by the Migratory Bird Treaty Act (MBTA) (16 USC. 703. A complete list of all migratory birds protected by the MBTA can be found in 50 CFR 10.13. Also, all states protect most waterfowl. Exotic and feral waterfowl species including mute swans, greylag geese, muscovy ducks, and Pekin ducks are not protected by the MBTA, but may be protected by state law or local ordinance.

Persons wishing to take any migratory bird outside of the legal hunting season must first secure a federal permit from the US Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS), and in some cases a state permit. “Take” means to pursue, hunt, shoot, wound, kill, trap, capture, or collect, or attempt to pursue, hunt, shoot, wound, kill, trap, capture, or collect (50 CFR 10.12). “A federal permit is not required to merely scare or herd depredating migratory birds other than endangered or threatened species or bald or golden eagles” (50 CFR 21.43a).

Three species and one subspecies of waterfowl that occur in the United States are listed as endangered in 50 FR 17.11, October 1, 1992 edition (Table 1). In addition, five subspecies of rails, and one species and one subspecies of crane are listed. Contact personnel from your local USDA-APHIS-ADC office for information on obtaining a federal permit to take migratory birds.

Damage Prevention and Control Methods

Exclusion
Install fence around ponds, gardens, and yards. Install overhead grids or netting on ponds, reservoirs, and fish raceways.

Habitat Modification
Vertically straighten pond banks. Allow ponds to freeze in winter. Eliminate vegetation (nesting/escape cover) in and around ponds. Reduce or eliminate fertilizer use around ponds.

Cultural Methods
Change the timing of planting and harvesting of vulnerable crops. Produce winter grains instead of spring grains. Use grain dryers to allow earlier harvest of high-moisture grain. Plant crops uniformly in spring. Delay fall plowing as long as possible. Use less-preferred plant species in parks, cemeteries, and lawns. Plant trees and shrubs to block flight path. Provide lure crops. Field baiting.

Frightening
Flags. Mylar tape. Balloons. Scarecrows. Water spray devices. Automatic exploders. Pyrotechnics. Recorded distress calls. Dogs. Dog Decoys.

Live Capture
Walk-in funnel trap. Rocket/cannon nets. Spring-powered nets. Net launchers. Alpha-chloralose.

STARLINGS

This starling is native to most of Eurasia, but has been introduced to South Africa, North America, Australia and New Zealand. This adaptable and omnivorous species has proved to be a pest in several of these countries. In Western Australia, which is starling-free, the government pays full-time hunters to patrol the border and shoot starlings as they arrive.

Identification
Starlings are robin-sized birds weighing about 3.2 ounces (90 g). Adults are dark with light speckles on the feathers. The speckles may not show at a distance. The bill of both sexes is yellow during the reproductive cycle (January to June) and dark at other times. Juveniles are pale brown to gray.

Starlings generally are chunky and hump-backed in appearance, with a shape similar to that of a meadowlark. The tail is short, and the wings have a triangular shape when outstretched in flight. Starling flight is direct and swift, not rising and falling like the flight of many blackbirds.

Range
Since their introduction into New York in the 1890s, starlings have spread across the continental United States, northward to Alaska and the southern half of Canada, and southward into northern Mexico. They are native to Eurasia, but have also been introduced in South Africa, Australia, New Zealand, and elsewhere.

Habitat
Starlings are found in a wide variety of habitats including cities, towns, farms, ranches, open woodlands, fields, and lawns. Ideal nesting habitat would include areas with trees or other structures that have cavities suitable for nesting and short grass (turf) areas or grazed pastures for foraging. Ideal winter habitat would include areas with structures and/or tall trees for daytime loafing (resting) and nighttime roosting; and grazed pastures, open water areas, and livestock facilities for foraging.

Food Habits
Starlings consume a variety of foods, including fruits and seeds of both wild and cultivated varieties. Insects, especially Coleoptera and Lepidoptera lawn grubs, and other invertebrates total about one-half of the diet overall, and are especially important during the spring breeding season. Other items including livestock rations and food in garbage become an important food base for wintering starlings.

General Biology, Reproduction, and Behavior
European starlings were brought into the United States from Europe. They were released in New York City in 1890 and 1891 by an individual who wanted to introduce to the United States all of the birds mentioned in Shakespeare’s works. Since that time, they have increased in numbers and spread across the country. They were first observed in Nebraska in 1930, in Colorado in 1939, and in California in 1942. The starling population in the United States is estimated at 140 million birds.

Starlings nest in holes or cavities almost anywhere, including tree cavities, birdhouses, and holes in buildings or cliff faces. Females lay 4 to 7 eggs which hatch after 11 to 13 days of incubation. Young leave the nest when they are about 21 days old. Both parents help build the nest, incubate the eggs, and feed the young. Sometimes 2 clutches of eggs are laid per season, but most of the production is from the first brood fledged.

Although starlings are not always migratory, some will migrate up to several hundred miles, while others may remain in the same general area throughout the year. Hatching-year starlings are more likely to migrate than adults, and they tend to migrate farther.

Outside the breeding season, starlings feed and roost together in flocks. Starling and blackbird flocks often roost together in urban landscape trees or in small dense woodlots or overcrowded tree groves. They choose trees or groves that offer ample perches so that all may roost together. In colder weather they choose dense vegetation such as coniferous trees or structures (such as barns, urban structures) that provide protection from wind and cold. Fall-roosting flocks are relatively small (from several hundred to several thousand birds), but because they are spread over large geographic areas, they can cause widespread nuisance problems. In contrast, winter-roosting flocks are large (sometimes exceeding 1 million birds), but are often confined to a few acres (ha). Some of the winter roosting areas are occupied by starlings year after year. Each day they may fly 15 to 30 or more miles (24 to 48 km) from roosting to feeding sites. During the day when not feeding, they may perch in smaller groups inside farm buildings or in other warm, protected spots in and around urban structures.

Damage and Damage Identification
Starlings are frequently considered pests because of the problems they cause, especially at livestock facilities and near urban roosts. Starlings may selectively eat the high-protein supplements that are often added to livestock rations.

Starlings may also be responsible for transferring disease from one livestock facility to another. This is of particular concern to swine producers. Tests have shown that the transmissible gastroenteritis virus (TGE) can pass through the digestive tract of a starling and be infectious in the starling feces. Researchers, however, have also found healthy swine in lots with infected starlings. This indicates that even infected starlings may not always transmit the disease, especially if starling interaction with pigs is minimized. TGE may also be transmitted on boots or vehicles, by stray animals, or by infected swine added to the herd. Although starlings may be involved in the spread of other livestock diseases, their role in transmission of these diseases is not yet understood.

Starlings cause other damage by consuming cultivated fruits such as grapes, peaches, blueberries, strawberries, figs, apples, and cherries. They were recently found to damage ripening (milk stage) corn, a problem primarily associated with blackbirds. In some areas starlings pull sprouting seeds, particularly winter wheat, and eat the planted seed. Starlings may damage turf on golf courses as they probe for grubs, but the frequency and extent of such damage is not well documented. The growing urbanization of wintering starling flocks seeking warmth and shelter for roosting may have serious consequences. Large roosts that occur in buildings, industrial structures, or, along with blackbird species, in trees near homes are a problem in both rural and urban sites because of health concerns, filth, noise, and odor. In addition, slippery accumulations of droppings pose safety hazards at industrial structures, and the acidity of droppings is corrosive.

Starling and blackbird roosts located near airports pose an aircraft safety hazard because of the potential for birds to be ingested into jet engines, resulting in aircraft damage or loss and, at times, in human injuries. In 1960, an Electra aircraft in Boston collided with a flock of starlings soon after takeoff, resulting in a crash landing and 62 fatalities. Although only about 6% of bird-aircraft strikes are associated with starlings or blackbirds, these species represent a substantial management challenge at airports.

One of the more serious health concerns is the fungal respiratory disease histoplasmosis. The fungus Histoplasma capsulatum may grow in the soils beneath bird roosts, and spores become airborne in dry weather, particularly when the site is disturbed. Although most cases of histoplasmosis are mild or even unnoticed, this disease can, in rare cases, cause blindness and/or death. Individuals who are weakened by other health conditions or who do not have endemic immunity are at greater risk from histoplasmosis.

Starlings also compete with native cavity-nesting birds such as bluebirds, flickers, and other woodpeckers, purple martins, and wood ducks for nest sites. One report showed that, where nest cavities were limited, starlings had severe impacts on local populations of native cavity-nesting species. One author has speculated that competition with starlings may cause shifts in red-bellied woodpecker (Melanerpes carolinus) nesting from urban habitats to rural forested areas where starling competition is less.

Economics of Damage and Control
Consumption of livestock feed by starlings can at times be a substantial economic consideration. Data reported in 1968 from Colorado feedlots estimated the cost of cattle rations consumed during winter by starlings at $84 per 1,000 starlings. Current feed costs and the associated losses would certainly be much higher. A 1967 report indicated that 1 million starlings at a California feedlot resulted in losses of $1,000 per day because of food consumption and contamination, and starling interference with cattle feeding activity. Another report estimated that starlings in Idaho consumed 15 to 20 tons (13.5 to 18 mt) of cattle feed per day. A 1978 study in England estimated that the food eaten by starlings in a calf-rearing unit over three winters was 6% to 12% of the food presented to the calves. Two other studies in England since then found 4% losses and negligible damage, respectively.

Producers who wish to estimate feed losses to starlings at their facilities can do so using one of two methods. The following equation, which was developed from data in Colorado, estimates the cost of feed consumed per day: Cost of feed ration consumed per day = estimated starlings (to the nearest 1,000) x fraction of birds using trough x cost of feed ration per pound (0.4536 kg) x 0.0625 pound (0.02813 kg) consumed per starling per day.

A second method, which may be applicable to most geographic areas, precludes the need of estimating starling populations. It requires the operator to observe the feed troughs several times during the day and estimate the number of starlings entering the troughs per day. From this estimate the cost of the feed ration consumed per day can be estimated with the following equation: Cost of feed ration consumed per day = estimated starling entries into troughs x 0.0033 pounds (0.0015 kg) consumed per starling entry x cost of feed ration per pound (0.4536 kg).

These losses projected over a 3-to 4-month damage season can assist in evaluating the costs and benefits of proposed control measures.

Feed contamination from starling excreta may not be an economic loss for cattle or pig operations. In 2 years of testing at Western Kentucky University, neither pigs nor cattle were adversely affected by long-term exposure to feed heavily contaminated with starling excreta. As compared to controls, no significant differences were observed in weight gain or feed efficiency (ratio of weight gain to weight of feed offered). In addition, there were no observed differences in feed rejection or disease incidence. These results indicate that there is no economic justification for starling control based solely on feed contamination. However, the effects of livestock water contamination from starling excreta have not been well studied.

Starling interference with livestock feeding patterns may have economic importance. A study in England reported that calves in pens protected from starlings showed higher growth rates and better feed conversion than those in unprotected pens. This protection led to an increased profit margin. The difference observed, however, might have been caused by starlings in the unprotrected pens consuming the calf food, especially the high protein portion, rather than by actual interference with the calf feeding.

The costs associated with starlings in the spread of livestock disease may at times be substantial. For example, during the severe winter of 1978-1979, a TGE outbreak occurred in southeast Nebraska, with over 10,000 pigs lost in 1 month in Gage County alone. Starlings were implicated because the TGE outbreak was concurrent with large flocks of starlings feeding at the same facilities. More recent data show that starlings are capable of carrying this disease in their feces. The role of starlings in disease transfer, however, needs further study.

Bird damage to grapes in the United States was estimated to be at least $4.4 million in 1972; starlings were one of the species causing the most damage. Starlings, as well as many other species of birds, also damage ripening cherry crops. A 1972 study in Michigan found 17.4% of a total crop lost to birds. A 1975 study in England estimated damage at 14% (lower branches) to 21% (tree canopy) of the crop; similar 1976 data showed less damage. Starling damage to winter wheat in a study of 218 fields in three regions in Kentucky and Tennessee averaged 3.8%, 0.5%, and 0.4% respectively, with the most serious losses (more than 14%) occurring where wheat was planted late and fields were within 11 miles (16 km) of a large starling roost.

Human health and safety problems associated with urban starling roosts include concerns about the disease histoplasmosis and about aircraft-bird collisions. Although serious problems occur only infrequently, they can have grievous consequences where loss of human life and/or permanent disability may occur. Moreover, equipment repair and replacement costs associated with aircraft-bird collisions can be substantial. For example, the costs of aircraft-bird collisions in the United States are estimated to be at least $20 million per year to commercial aircraft and $10 million per year to Air Force aircraft. These consequences mandate a thorough understanding of urban roost situations and timely roost management where the potential for human health and safety problems exists.

On the beneficial side, starlings eat large quantities of insects and other invertebrates, especially during spring. Many of these invertebrates, such as lawn grubs, are considered to be pests. This benefit, however, is partially offset by the fact that starlings often take over nest cavities of native insect-eating birds. As trends move toward lower pesticide use and sustainable, low-input turf and agricultural systems, the role of starlings and other birds may become more important. Research is needed to further understand potential positive impacts of starlings and to learn how to maximize potential benefits while minimizing problems.

Although starlings are frequently associated with damage problems, some of which clearly cause substantial economic losses, the economics of damage in relation to the cost and effectiveness of controls are not well understood. Several factors contribute to this: (1) Starlings are difficult to monitor because they often move long distances daily from roost to feeding areas, and many migrate. (2) Effectiveness of controls, particularly in relation to the total population in an area, is difficult to document. For example, does population reduction in a particular situation reduce the problem or merely allow an influx of starlings from other areas, and how does this vary seasonally or annually? In addition, does lethal control just substitute for natural mortality or is it additive? (3) The economics of interactions with other species are difficult to measure. For example, how much is a bluebird or flicker worth, and what net benefits occur when starling interference with native cavity-nesting birds is considered? (4) Other factors such as weather and variation among problem situations complicates accurate evaluation of damage and the overall or long-term effectiveness of controls. These points, as well as others mentioned in this chapter, are examples of factors that must be considered in assessing the total economic impact of starlings. Clearly, to minimize starling-human conflicts we need a better understanding of starlings and their interactions with various habitats and control measures.

Legal Status
European starlings are not protected by federal law and in most cases not by state law. Laws vary among states, however, so check with state wildlife officials before beginning a control program. In addition, state or local laws may regulate or prohibit certain control techniques such as shooting or the use of toxicants.

Damage Prevention and Control Methods

Exclusion
Close all openings larger than 1 inch (2.5 cm). Place covering at 45 degree angle on ledges. Porcupine wires on ledges or rafters. Netting to prevent roosting on building beams or to protect fruit crops. PVC or rubber strips to cover door openings; netting where frequent access is not needed.

Cultural Methods and Habitat Modification
Reduce availability of food and water at livestock facilities: remove spilled grain and standing water; use birdproof feeders and storage facilities; feed livestock in open sheds; where appropriate, feed in late afternoon or at night; lower water level in waterers. Modify roost sites by closing buildings; exclude from roost areas with netting (for example, under roof beams); modify specific perch sites. For tree roosts, prune branches of specific trees or thin trees from groves. Frightening
Frightening devices include recorded distress or alarm calls, various sound-producing devices, chemical frightening agents (Avitrol®), lights, and bright objects. Use with fruit crops and starling roosts. Also useful at livestock facilities in warm climates and at facilities located near major roosts.

Repellents
Soft sticky materials (polybutenes) discourage roosting on ledges. Starling repellent is currently under development: methyl anthranilate (grape flavoring). If successful, it may be useful for protecting fruit and as a livestock feed additive.

Toxicants
Starlicide: toxic bait for use around livestock facilities and, in some situations, at roost sites. Toxic perches: can be useful for certain industrial and other structural roost situations.

Fumigants
None are registered.

Trapping
Nest-box traps, for use during nesting season. Decoy traps may be useful around orchards or livestock facilities. Proper care for trap and decoy birds is necessary.

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SWALLOWS

The bird family Hirundinidae is a group of passerines characterised by their adaptation to aerial feeding, and known as swallows and martins.

Identification
Eight members of the swallow family Hirundinidae breed in North America: the tree swallow (Tachycineta bicolor), violet-green swallow (Tachycineta thalassina), purple martin (Progne subis), bank swallow (Riparia riparia), northern rough-winged swallow (Stelgidopteryx serripennis), barn swallow (Hirundo rustica), cave swallow (Hirundo fulva), and the cliff swallow (Hirundo pyrrhonota). Of the eight species, barn and cliff swallows regularly build mud nests attached to buildings and other structures, a habit that sometimes puts them into conflict with humans. This is particularly true of the cliff swallow, which nests in large colonies of up to several hundred pairs. Barn swallows tend to nest as single pairs or occasionally in loose colonies of a few pairs. Some homeowners consider barn swallows to be at most a minor nuisance. Many homeowners tolerate nesting barn swallows as pleasant and interesting summer companions around the home. This chapter will focus on cliff and barn swallows because of their close association with humans.

The cliff swallow, 5 to 6 inches (13 to 15 cm) in length, is the only square-tailed swallow in most of North America. It is recognized by a pale, orange-brown rump, white forehead, dark, rust-colored throat, and steel-blue crown and back. The cave swallow is similar in appearance, but has a rust-colored forehead and pale throat; it is restricted to southeast New Mexico and central, south, and west Texas.

The barn swallow, 5 3/4 to 7 3/4 inches (15 to 20 cm) in length, is the only swallow in the United States with a long, deeply forked tail. Barn swallows have steel-blue plumage on the crown, wings, back, and tail. The forehead, throat, breast, and abdomen are rust colored. Females are usually duller colored than the males.

Range
Cliff and barn swallows are found throughout most of North America. Breeding occurs northward to Alaska and the Yukon, across Canada, throughout the western United States, and south into Mexico. Barn swallows are common nesters in most of the southern United States, except Florida. Until recently, cliff swallows did not breed in the southern United States east of central Texas and south of west-central Tennessee or western Kentucky. Reports of new colonies in eastern Tennessee, Louisiana, Alabama, Arkansas, Mississippi, and Florida suggest a range expansion into the southern Atlantic seaboard and Gulf Coast states. Barn swallows are also found in Europe, North Africa, and Asia.

Habitat
Four basic conditions are found near most cliff and barn swallow nest sites:
(1) an open habitat for foraging, (2) a suitable surface for nest attachment beneath an overhang or ledge, (3) a supply of mud of the proper consistency for nest building, and (4) a body of fresh water for drinking.

The original nesting sites of cliff swallows were cliffs and walls of canyons and vertical banks, usually along permanent streams. Human structures (for example, buildings, bridges) and agricultural-related activities (irrigation, canals, reservoirs) have increased the number and distribution of suitable nesting sites, and cliff swallow populations have increased accordingly. Historically, cliff swallows were presumed to be most common in the western mountains. They spread eastward following human settlement and development of eastern North America.

The preferred habitat of barn swallows includes open forests, farmlands, suburbs, and rural areas with buildings that provide nest sites. Like cliff swallows, barn swallows have benefited from human activities. Their nests, originally built on cliffs or in caves and crevices, are now built on beams or walls of buildings or other structures. The presence of livestock and power lines for perching are features commonly associated with barn swallow nest sites.

Food Habits
All swallows are insectivores, catching a variety of insects. Stomachs of 375 cliff swallows and 467 barn swallows collected in different areas of the country contained prey from the following orders: Hymenoptera (bees, wasps, and ants) 29%, 23%; Coleoptera (beetles) 27%, 16%; Hemiptera (true bugs) 26%, 15%; and Diptera (flies) 13%, 40% for cliff and barn swallows, respectively.

Cliff swallows may forage over areas up to 4 miles (6.4 km) away from the nest. They forage as a loose unit, and adults may be away from the colony for hours prior to the hatching of young. After the young hatch, a more or less steady stream of adults return to the colony with food for the nestlings.

Barn swallows will fly several miles from the nest site to suitable foraging areas. Long periods of continuous rainfall make it difficult for adult barn and cliff swallows to find food, occasionally causing nestling mortality.

General Biology, Reproduction, and Behavior
Migration
Cliff and barn swallows winter in South America. They begin a northward migration in late winter and early spring overland through Central America and Mexico. Swallows migrate during the day and catch flying insects along the way. They will not penetrate regions unless flying insects are available for food, which occurs after a few days of relatively warm weather, 60 to 70oF (16 to 21oC) or more. Arrival dates can vary greatly with weather conditions. In general, cliff and barn swallows enter the southern United States in mid-March to mid-April and reach the northern portions of their range by early June.

Site Selection
Swallows have a homing tendency toward previous nesting sites. Under suitable conditions, a nest is quite durable and may be used in successive years. Most cliff swallows arrive at a particular colony within a 24-hour period. At large colonies, swallows may arrive in successive waves. Resident adults are the first to return, followed by adults who bred at other colonies, and by young swallows who have not yet bred. The younger swallows include individuals not born at the selected colony.

Swallow nests are inhabited by hematophagous (bloodsucking) insects and mites. Swallow bugs (Oeciacus vicarius), most common in cliff swallow nests, can spread rapidly by crawling from nest to nest in a new colony or by clinging to the feathers of adults. Infestations of swallow bugs and mites reduce nestling growth rates and cause up to half of all nestling deaths. Swallow bugs are able to survive in unoccupied nests for up to 3 years without feeding and await returning swallows in spring. In selecting a nest site, cliff and barn swallows apparently assess which nests are heavily infested with parasites and avoid them. Cliff swallow colonies often are not reoccupied after 1 or 2 years of use because of heavy infestations. Cliff swallows will even prematurely desert their nests en masse, leaving their young to starve, when swallow bug populations become too great.

Nest Construction
Cliff swallow nests are gourd-shaped, enclosed structures with an entrance tunnel that opens downward. The tunnel may be absent from some nests. The mud pellets used to build the nest consist of sand and smaller amounts of silt and clay. The nest chamber is lined sparingly with grasses, hair, and feathers. The nest is cemented with mud under the eave or overhang of a building, bridge, or other vertical surface. The first cliff swallow nests on structures are usually located at the highest point possible, with subsequent nests attached below it, forming a dense cluster.

Barn swallow nests are cup-shaped rather than gourd-shaped, and the mud pellets contain coarse organic matter such as grass stems, horse hairs, and feathers. The nest cup is profusely lined with grasses and feathers, especially white feathers. Barn swallow nests are also typically built under eaves or similarly protected sites but not necessarily at the highest point possible. Barn swallows often use a beam or the protruding edge of a door or window jamb as the base for the nest, or attach the nest at the juncture of the two walls of an interior corner.

Both male and female cliff and barn swallows construct the nest, proceeding slowly to allow the mud to dry and harden. Depending on mud supply and weather, nest construction may take 1 to 2 weeks. Mud is collected at ponds, puddles, ditches, and other sites up to 1/2 mile (0.8 km) away, with many swallows using the same mud source. A typical cliff swallow nest contains 900 to 1400 pellets, each representing one trip to and from the nest.

Among cliff swallows, mud gathering and nest construction are social activities; even unmated swallows will start nests. Mated swallows may build more than one nest per season, even though not all will be used. A count of nests under construction will not give an accurate estimate of the number of breeding cliff swallows.

Egg Laying
Cliff swallows usually begin laying eggs before the entrance tunnel is completed. Each day 1 egg is laid until the clutch, usually 3 or 4 eggs, is completed. In Texas, egg laying may begin as early as late March to early April, while in North Dakota nesting may not start until early to mid-June. Within a large colony, the date of egg laying varies due to the staggered arrival dates of the swallows. For small colonies, laying may be more synchronous.

Barn swallows typically lay 4 or 5 eggs, but laying may be delayed for some time after nest building is completed. The breeding season begins in early April in the south to mid-June in the northern portions of the range. Barn swallows are double-brooded, resulting in a prolonged nesting season.

Nest Failures
Renesting will occur if nests or eggs are destroyed. Nests may fall because they were built too rapidly or crumble because of prolonged humid weather or rain. House sparrows (Passer domesticus) sometimes usurp empty swallow nests and may also drive off swallows from new nests. A cliff swallow nest taken over by house sparrows is identified by the abundant nest lining (grasses, weeds, feathers, and litter) protruding out of the entrance tunnel. Cats associated with farm and other buildings are common predators of barn swallows.

Hatching
Both sexes incubate the eggs. Incubation begins before the last egg is laid and ranges from 12 to 16 days for cliff swallows and 13 to 17 days for barn swallows. Most studies report incubation of 14 or 15 days. Whitewash on the ground below the nest or on the rim of the nest entrance is a sign of newly hatched nestlings inside the nest. This marking occurs when adults remove fecal sacs from the nest and later when nestlings defecate from the nest.

Fledging and Postnesting Period
Cliff swallow nestlings fledge 20 to 25 days after hatching; barn swallows fledge in 17 to 24 days. The juvenile swallows appear similar to adults but are dull colored and have less sharply-defined color patterns. The fledglings return to the nest each day for 2 to several days to be fed before leaving it permanently. Within a week, juveniles will join flocks and leave the area.

At least some cliff swallows raise 2 broods in a breeding season. Second broods are documented from Virginia and West Virginia but are uncommon in central California. Late nests may result from re-nesting attempts after a first failure, or from late nesters. The time from start of nest building to departure is 44 to 64 days: 7 to 14 days nest building, 3 to 6 days egg laying, 12 to 16 days incubation, 20 to 25 days to fledging, and 2 or 3 days to leave the nest. Reports of colony occupancy ranging from 110 to 132 days indicate ample time for 2 broods.

After leaving the nest, swallows may remain in the general area for several weeks. By late summer there is a general southward movement, and by the end of September few swallows remain in the nest site. Fall migration of swallows is not well documented.

Damage
Cliff swallows nest in colonies and often live in close association with humans. Many swallow colonies on buildings and other structures are innocuous. In some situations, however, they can become a major nuisance, primarily because of the droppings they deposit. In such instances they may create aesthetic problems, foul machinery, and cause health hazards by contaminating foodstuffs. Their mud nests eventually fall to the ground and can cause similar problems. Parasites found in swallow nests, including swallow bugs, fleas, ticks, and mites, may bite humans and domestic animals, although these are not the usual hosts. In addition, cliff swallow nests are often used by house sparrows, introducing another avian pest and its attendant damage problems and potential health hazards. Barn swallows nesting singly or in small groups on a structure can cause similar problems but of a lesser magnitude due to the smaller numbers present.

Permit Requirments
A depredation permit issued by the US Fish and Wildlife Service may be required to remove swallow nests. Three of seven administrative regions of the US Fish and Wildlife Service in the continental United States require a permit regardless of the time of year. This includes nests under construction, completed but empty nests, nests with eggs or young, or nests abandoned after the breeding season. Four of the seven regions do not require a permit if eggs or young birds are not present in the nest.

If eggs or nestlings are present, a permit authorizing nest removal or the use of exclusion techniques is required in every region and will be issued only if very compelling reasons exist. An example might be the safety hazard of a nesting colony located at an airport where aircraft safety is in question and where other methods of control are not applicable. In most cases (for example, swallows nesting on a residence or other building), a permit allowing lethal control will not be issued.

For permit requirements in your area, contact the closest US Fish and Wildlife regional office or USDA-APHIS-ADC district office. At the first sign of nest building, contact the appropriate authorities, since swallows can build their nests and lay eggs in a short time. Timing is critical in those regions that require a permit. If a swallow problem has been experienced in the past at a site and is expected to reoccur, then apply for a permit in advance of the birds’ return. A fee is charged for a permit.

Economics of Damage and Control
Costs of damage are difficult to quantify and vary with the particular site and the method of control employed. The cost of actual or potential damage can range from the cleanup of droppings on and around a structure, to thousands of dollars from swallows contaminating foodstuffs at a processing center or posing a danger to aircraft at an airport. Similarly, control costs vary greatly. When hosing is used, costs are primarily labor-related. Net is relatively inexpensive (from about $9 to $33 per 1,000 square feet depending on quantity purchased, 1992 prices) and is reported to be effective for 4 to 5 years before replacement is necessary. Labor and other equipment costs to install netting, however, can be quite high. For example, mounting net on a concrete versus a wooden structure, or 100 feet (30 m) versus 10 feet (3 m) above the ground can drastically increase costs. Costs for each site must be judged on an individual basis.

Legal Status
In the United States, all swallows are classified as migratory insectivorous birds under the Migratory Bird Treaty Act of 1918. Swallows are also protected by state regulations. It is illegal for any person to take, possess, transport, sell, or purchase swallows or their parts, such as feathers, nests, or eggs, without a permit. As a result, certain activities affecting swallows are subject to legal restrictions.

Damage Prevention and Control Methods

Exclusion
Netting or wire mesh. Strip doors.

Habitat Modification
Substrate modification: slick surfaces discourage nesting.
Architectural design: some designs discourage nesting.
Avoid overhanging eaves.

Frightening
Not effective for barn or cliff swallows.

Repellents
Not effective.

Toxicants
None are registered.

Trapping
Not allowed.

Shooting
Not allowed.

Please read more about us and our services .  You can also learn about our company history and understand why to choose us.  You can read about birds at the airport, understand why birds go to the airport, and what deterrents are used.

Call our NJ Exterminators at Bird Solutions by Cowleys at 888-377-1828 or use our email form and contact us today!

Sparrows

HOUSE SPARROWS

Wherever people build, House Sparrows sooner or later come to share their abodes. Though described as tame and semi-domestic, neither is strictly true; humans provide food and home, not companionship. The House Sparrow remains wary and resents familiarity.

Identification
The house or English sparrow is a brown, chunky bird about 5 3/4 inches (15 cm) long, and very common in human-made habitats. The male has a distinctive black bib, white cheeks, a chestnut mantle around the gray crown, and chestnut-colored feathers on the upper wings. The female and young are difficult to distinguish from some native sparrows. They have a plain, dingy-gray breast, a distinct, buffy eye stripe, and a streaked back. The black bib and chestnut-colored feathers on the wings are the first signs of male plumage and appear on the young birds within weeks of leaving the nest.

Range
The house sparrow was first introduced in Brooklyn, New York, from England in 1850 and has spread throughout the continent.

Habitat
The house sparrow is found in nearly every habitat except dense forest, alpine, and desert environments. It prefers human-altered habitats, particularly farm areas. While still the most common bird in most urban areas, house sparrow numbers have fallen significantly since they peaked in the 1920s, when food and wastes from horses furnished an unlimited supply of food.

Food Habits
House sparrows are primarily granivorous. Plant materials (grain, fruit, seeds, and garden plants) make up 96% of the adult diet. The remainder consists of insects, earthworms, and other animal matter. Nestlings, however, are fed mostly animal matter. Garbage, bread crumbs, and refuse from fast-food restaurants can support sparrow populations in urban habitats.

General Biology, Reproduction, and Behavior
Breeding can occur in any month but is most common from March through August. The male usually selects a nest site and controls a territory centered around it. Nests are bulky, roofed affairs, built haphazardly and without the good workmanship displayed by other weaver finches, the group to which the house sparrow belongs. Sparrows are loosely monogamous. Both sexes feed and take care of the young, although the female does most of the brooding. From 3 to 7 eggs are laid, 4 to 5 being the most typical. Incubation takes 10 to 14 days, and the young stay in the nest for about 15 days. They may still be fed by the adults for another 2 weeks after leaving the nest.

House sparrows are aggressive and social, both of which increases their ability to compete with most native birds. Sparrows do not migrate. Studies have shown that 90% of the adults will stay within a radius of 1 1/4 miles (2 km) during the nesting period. Exceptions occur when the young set up new territories. Flocks of juveniles and nonbreeding adults will move 4 to 5 miles (6 to 8 km) from nesting sites to seasonal feeding areas.

Mortality is highest during the first year of life. Few sparrows survive in the wild past their fifth season. One individual, however, lived in captivity for 23 years. While house sparrows are tolerant of disturbance by humans, they can in no way be considered tame. Their success lies in their ability to exploit new habitats, particularly those influenced by humans.

Damage and Damage Identification
House sparrows consume grains in fields and in storage. They do not move great distances into grain fields, preferring to stay close to the shelter of hedgerows. Localized damage can be considerable since sparrows often feed in large numbers over a small area. Sparrows damage crops by pecking seeds, seedlings, buds, flowers, vegetables, and maturing fruits. They interfere with the production of livestock, particularly poultry, by consuming and contaminating feed.

Because they live in such close association with humans, they are a factor in the dissemination of diseases (chlamydiosis, coccidiosis, erysipeloid, Newcastle’s, parathypoid, pullorum, salmonellosis, transmissible gastroenteritis, tuberculosis, various encephalitis viruses, vibriosis, and yersinosis), internal parasites (acariasis, schistosomiasis, taeniasis, toxoplasmosis, and trichomoniasis), and household pests (bed bugs, carpet beetles, clothes moths, fleas, lice, mites, and ticks).

In grain storage facilities, fecal contamination probably results in as much monetary loss as does the actual consumption of grain. House sparrow droppings and feathers create janitorial problems as well as hazardous, unsanitary, and odoriferous situations inside and outside of buildings and sidewalks under roosting areas. Damage can also be caused by the pecking of rigid foam insulation inside buildings. The bulky, flammable nests of house sparrows are a potential fire hazard. The chattering of the flock on a roost is an annoyance to nearby human residents.

Nestlings are primarily fed insects, some of which are beneficial and some harmful to humans. Adult house sparrows compete with native, insectivorous birds. Martins and bluebirds, in particular, have been crowded out by sparrows that drive them away and destroy their eggs and young. House sparrows generally compete with native species for favored nest sites.

Economics of Damage and Control
The US Department of Agriculture survey concerning the status of house sparrows in 1886, about 35 years after their successful introduction, house sparrows were recognized as a detriment to agriculture and native birds. Researchers in 1940 analyzed 8,004 sparrow stomachs and found that only 20% of the foods (primarily insects) taken by adult sparrows were beneficial to humans, 25% were of neutral importance, and 55% were definitely detrimental to human interests. While 59% of nestling foods were beneficial to humans and only 28% injurious, he pointed out that their impact lasted for only 10 to 12 days.

A recent survey of bird problems across the United States indicated that 25% of the respondents in cities had problems with house sparrows, behind pigeons (71%), blackbirds (54%), and starlings (42%). Extensive measures with traps are not cost-effective.

Legal Status
The house sparrow is afforded no legal protection by federal statutes because it is an introduced species. A few states, however, may offer them some protection by requiring permits or otherwise restricting control activities.

Damage Prevention and Control Methods

Exclusion
Block entrances larger than 3/4 inch (2 cm). Design new buildings or alter old ones to eliminate roosting and nesting places. Install plastic bird netting or overhead lines to protect high-value crops.

Cultural Methods
Remove roosting sites. Plant bird resistant varieties.

Frightening
Fireworks, alarm calls, exploders. Scarecrows, motorized hawks, balloons, kites. 4-Aminopyridine (Avitrol®).

Repellents
Capsicum. Polybutenes. Metal or plastic projection spikes (Bird-Be-Gone® and Bird Barrier®).

Trapping
Funnel, automatic, and triggered traps. Mist nets.

Please read more about us and our services .  You can also learn about our company history and understand why to choose us.  You can read about birds at the airport, understand why birds go to the airport, and what deterrents are used.

Call our NJ Exterminators at Bird Solutions by Cowleys at 888-377-1828 or use our email form and contact us today!